Human factors in technology Essay Example for Free

Human factors in technology Essay Man is the only being who has utilized technology, to the point that it also caused technology to change rapidly through time. Technology has been one of the most influential concepts in the lives of every human being throughout history. It was so influential that it had become one of the major deciding factors in the direction of history. Technological innovations had evolved from the simple to the very complex. From the simple stone cutting tools that prehistoric man had, to the contemporary blades that virtually do not need any resharpening at all. There had also been evolution from the very crude computing technique such as the finger counting, to the very complex supercomputers. In terms of transportation, from the very simple mode of walking and running, man had innovated transportation technology by inventing and innovating cars, planes, ships, etc. Technology had not only affected transportation and computing, but also the social and psychological scene as well. Companies whose general trade is information and technology are the ones whose organizational structure is very much affected by the technological changes. Most of the companies are either computer manufacturers or technological research companies. Apple Inc. , formerly known as Apple Computer, Inc. is an American-based multinational corporation which has its focus on technical manufacturing and designing of electronics and software programs for variations of consumers all around the world. It headquarters can be found in Cupertino, California (Apple, Inc. , 2007; History of Apple, 2007; Mesa, 1998; Apple. com, 2007). This company basically focuses on the development and support of several electronic gadgets for the market. This same company currently has its eyes focused on the innovation of already existing technologies, as well as the formation of a new breed of technology for the market. Some of its world-famous creations are the iPod, iPhone and the AppleTV. Aside from these electronic equipment and gadgets, the Apple, Inc. is also into the creation of new and better software programs. In the past, it had focused on creating and developing operating systems (OS), and specific application programs. Today, Apple, Inc. is now setting the path before it releases its newest operating system, the Mac OS X â€Å"Leopard†. Apple is very much into expanding its frontiers by exploring new ways of marketing and product presentation (Apple, Inc. , 2007; History of Apple, 2007; Mesa, 1998; Apple. com, 2007). It is now into the trend of having an online store where its products, whether hardware or software, can be bought by just a click of the mouse. The company is well-known for their very user-friendly hardware as well as software. Their iPod series, as well as their iPhone, Macintosh series of personal computers and peripherals, iLife software suite, and the Mac OS are just some of their best-known software and hardware products. Also, the company is a major supplier of prosumer software products for specialized purposes such as the audio and film industry (Apple, Inc. , 2007; History of Apple, 2007; Mesa, 1998; Apple. com, 2007). The mentioned things about Apple, Inc. , set up a background for the contemporary company. Technology has an implicit message, and that is to put everything into a very objective perspective, where everything could and should not be subject to an individual’s / group’s personal judgments or beliefs. By virtue of technology, man was able to do things such as measurement and judgment without having biases. With the use of technology, organizations can track their development without having doubts if the people who assessed them were biased about the evaluation process. But this strength is also its weak point. Being very objective would mean that the assessment would be very strict, and it would be guided by certain sets of quantified measurements such as numbers and / or a set of quantified codes. These standards for judgment and assessment can be used to evaluate employees’ activities, company sales and company economic standing. Having these strict standards would mean an easier, more efficient and more economic way of assessing the company. With these, companies such as the Apple could rely on machines about their company’s survival. Machines, which are products of modern technology, could be programmed to assess particular aspects of the company and suggest possible options about how to make the company even more productive. This may sound farfetched, but it could be a good way of looking at the possibility of how machines could help organizations in optimizing their parts. Business oriented companies such as the Apple is currently facing the possibilities of having less human members, and more help from the technology they are developing. These companies, with the help of modern technology, could be able to assess their employees using certain standards that can be input to a computer for further assessment. This way, there would be less processing time, less need for human HRD team members, less specialists in the field of assessing people, more possible members for the pool of computer and technology specialists (which could also mean more capital would be invested on the specialty of the company), and less expenses on the part of the company. Looking at the advantages posed by this method, it would be good to conclude that this could boost company income, thus uplift the lives of its employees in an economic and political sense. On the other hand, this method could also pose a very detrimental effect to the company as a whole, both in the macro and micro perspectives. One disadvantage of this method would be that without the subjective judgments of humans on human resources, it would be possible to miss important and potentially able applicants. Also, it would be possible that the programmed machines would not be able to look the implicit factors such as family background and the personality types of the applicants. Another is the fact that hardcore statistics, which programmed machines use, does not claim that the results are products of the interplay of all possible factors, instead it can only present results with the extraneous factors (which may possibly matter) omitted. References: Apple. com (2007).Retrieved August 9, 2007 from http://www. asia. apple. com/. Apple, Inc. (2007). Wikipedia: The Fee Encyclopedia. Retrieved August 9, 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Apple_Computer. History of Apple (2007). ). Wikipedia: The Fee Encyclopedia. Retrieved August 9, 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/History_of_Apple_Inc.. Mesa, A. (2007). Apple History Timeline. The Apple Museum. Retrieved August 9, 2007 from http://applemuseum. bott. org/sections/history. html.

The Computer Data Storage Computer Science Essay

The Computer Data Storage Computer Science Essay Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model used since the 1940s'[2].Physical memory is a general term that refers to the media data cache on your computer. Being processed for each program and data by the processor will be stored in physical memory. Data is stored in physical memory is temporary, because it will store the data stored in it on a computer that does not continue to flow through the power in other words, the computer is still alive. When you are re-set the computer on or off, will be the loss of data stored in physical memory. So, before you shut down your computer, do not store all data in the mass permanent storage usually tend to be permanent and the media-based disk storage, such as hard disk or floppy disk. There are some types of comput er memory which is Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), Virtual memory, Cache Memory and Flash Memory MAIN BODY Random Access Memory (RAM) consists of a set of chips. Chip-chip is able to accommodate the data to be processed, or program instructions, to process data which has been processed and waiting to be sent to output devices, secondary storage or communication also device. Operating system that controls the basic functions of the system data and instructions had accommodated in RAM is temporary. The contents of RAM can vary according to the processed data in it, or even use the program. RAM is the computer resources of its reusable or can be used of RAM referred to as the volatile products. This means that if the power is disconnected from the computer and the computer dead, then all content that is in RAM will be lost permanently. Because RAM is temporary and volatile, then the other storage media to create a permanent nature. This is commonly referred to as secondary storage. Secondary storage is durable and not too volatile, this means all data or programs stored in it can still exist even if the power or the power is turned off. Some examples of this such as secondary storage are magnetic tape, hard drives, magnetic disks and optical storage disk.Capacity of RAM is very diverse in different computers. Capacity is an important factor, because it determines how much data can be processed in the same time and how large and complex programs that can store. Computer operating system in charge of regulating the use of RAM so that programs can work well. To understand the capacity of the RAM, then some of the following terminology is often. Bit, which is a binary numbering system that represents the smallest unit of data in a computer system? A bit consists of only two digits are 1 and 0. In the computer, 0 means electronic or magnetic signals are absent or absent, while 1 means. Byte, which is a group of eight bits. A byte represents one character, a digit or a value. The capacity of computer memory, or RAM, specified in bytes or groups of bytes. Data, and program instructions stored in the RAM is actually stored in the bits that represent data, instruction and program earlier. Bits are stored in an electronic part called the microscopic capacitor. Read Only Memory (ROM) is a set of chips that contain part of the operating system which is needed when the computer starts up. ROM is also known as a firmware. ROM is not writable or changed its contents by the user. ROM classified in the media that are non-volatile storage. ROM chips come from the factory with programs or instructions that have been stored in it. The only way to replace its contents is removed from the computer and replace it with another ROM. ROM chip can contain frequently used programs, such as computational routines to calculate the root of a number of ROM and others. This example is for the storage of the BIOS (Basic Input-Output System) which by the manufacturer. BIOS are a very critical part of an operating system, which functions to tell the computer how I access the disk drives. When the computer is turned on, RAM is still empty and there are instructions in the ROM BIOS is used by the CPU to find the disk drive that contains the main files in the operatin g system. Computer and then transfer those files into RAM and then there are three variations of the ROM, i.e. PROM, or programmable read only memory. PROM chip is a chip that is empty in which the program can be written into it by using special equipment. PROM chips can be programmed once and usually used by the plant as a control device in the product. PROM or erasable programmable read only memory. EPROM similar to PROM, but the program can be removed and the new program could be written into it by using special equipment that uses ultraviolet light. EPROM is used for controlling devices, such as robots .EEPROM, or electronic erasable programmable read only memory. EEPROM chip can be reprogrammed using special electric impulses. Virtual memory is a data storage method in which part of the program or data stored in the magnetic disk and not in RAM, until such time as necessary. This will provide a kind of illusion that the RAM is its unlimited. Upshot simulates virtual memory itself as a RAM. He allows a computer to run more programs than ever before manipulate larger data and also runs a large program without fear of shortage of RAM. Virtual storage is slower than RAM and non-volatile nature. Cache memory is the storage of data or information, while the most frequently used or accessed by a computer. Cache memory located on the CPU or on a separate chip. CPU cache memory used to store instructions that are frequently used to run a program. Indirectly, this will improve overall system speed. There are two parts of the cache memory on a computer that is level 1 and level 2 caches is often with L1 and L2. L1 cache is on a built-in CPU and the L2 cache is located in a separate chip, and is located near the CPU. Some CPUs have a built-L1 and L2 and L3 are located on the outside. CPU which has a built-in cache memory much faster than the outside because it operates in tandem with microprosessor speed. Flash memory is non-volatile memory whose contents are maintained after power off. Flash memory can be read from and written to multiple times and more durable than floppy disks or compact disc. Flash memory devices used in various contributions to the stability, fast access, durability and clean energy power consumption. In addition to use as memory cards and thumb drives, flash memory is also used as a substitute for the hard-drive in the form of solid-state drive and hybrid. Flash memory to store and transfer files between computers and digital appliances. This is a form of EPROM electrically programmable read-can delete the memory-only. The types of flash memory are a compact flash (CF), Secure Digital (SD) media, memory sticks, multimedia cards, and xD-Picture cards. CONCLUSION The computers memory, often called memory only refers to any computer components, devices and recording media that retain digital data for a certain period of time. Computer data storage provides one of the main tasks of the modern computer, to store information. Memory is one of most important components in any computer system. Without Computer Memory, your computer system is useless and will only take up space in your desk. Computer Memory is a bridge between your permanent storage system disks, CDs, and the Processor. Hard drives are very slow when compared with a CPU processing time so Computer Memory is used to buffer data during time it is processed so bottlenecks are reduced.

How have Cell Phones Changed Us Socially?

How have Cell Phones Changed Us Socially? Cell phones: How have they changed us socially? Cell Phone is a device through which people can call anyone and they can receive anyone’s call through a geographical area. It can also perform various functions such as Internet browsing, playing music and many more. Can anyone believe right now that there was a time when cell phones didn’t exist? Cell Phones have changed their identity from luxury good to a necessity. This study hence examined how usage of cell phones has impacted people’s life thereby changing their attitude and their behavior. Technology over the past few years has boomed a lot. People nowadays are very much addicted to their mobile phones and that’s affecting their relationship with their friends, family and their closed ones. Remembering that people used letters to get messages back and forth from one person to another. Thereby we added cell phones to our society knowingly or unknowingly. In the beginning telephones were just a mean to contact people whether they were at home when we called or not. Then was the evolution of cell phones. With them we can make and receive calls or send and receive messages in almost any part of the world. Usage of cell phones has subsequently increased in the past decade as it’s lot convenient to message anyone through cellphones rather than sending that person a handwritten note which takes time as well. Year into year cellphones are getting a lot of innovation from one level to the other. Manufacturers keeps on making cell phones that are way better than the old ones. High level of competition even gave a boom and high amount of innovation to this industry. Each And Everyone Is Connected: Around two decades ago if you didn’t answer anyone’s phone call then the most likely reason is that you were not at home but now if you don’t pick up anyone’s phone call then you must be ignoring that person or screening your phone calls or there may be number of other reasons. Cell phones have obviously changed us socially as it’s very easy to connect with anyone we want and that too instantly. Innovations keep on happening in the world in which we live. But it’s upon us how we treat those innovations, positively or negatively. However most of them are double edged and bring with them positives as well as negatives. Cell phones are no different in this case as it brings both the cases alongside. There are many benefits, which emerged with the existence of cell phones, which made life easier and better for the humans. Some of these include increase in knowledge with the help of mobile Internet, better communication with the help of its mobility. There are various negative impacts of cell phones that include death due to talking on cell phones while driving and addiction towards it. Positive Changes in the Society due to Cell Phones: One of the most innovative items of the previous century was telephone and it revolutionized the meaning of the word communication. Earlier than that people used to trust on cumbersome processes to transmit data and information, which was very slow, and it was ineffective as well. If one wanted to send messages urgently it was not possible and other consequences, which gave a boost for inventing something, which was reliable, fast and effective. Therefore it gave a rise for the invention of Telephone. With the invention of telephone people can communicate with each other irrespective of the distance. Telephones exist as they are globally accepted as a mode of communication and because of its uniformity as well. Addition to this, telephones opened up the room for further innovations as well. With Cellphones came the most important invention of modern era, which was Internet. The Internet is a great tool as it allows anyone to find information on any of the imaginable topic in seconds. The Internet allows us to purchase or sell any product anywhere across the globe. It has really changed us socially as nowadays we shop through Internet rather than going to any mall and purchasing the products because we find that to be convenient as well. E-Banking and money transfer could be done with the help of cell phones. As we know, it used to take time and money during the period of traditional mail, which is not the case now as it has been replaced by e-mail. Internet helps us to communicate orally and can make video calls as well, which are cheaper than telephone calls. People can transact business anywhere in the world with the help of cell phones. Students can study for their exams even when they don’t have books with the help of e-books available and by other means as w ell. People can conveniently send their money even when they cannot go to banks and cannot use computers; it is possible with the help of cell phones. It allowed many innovations and it even changed the way people interact in schooling, business and when they communicate personally. We need to deeply examine the advantages we receive from cell phones, which makes our life better. Social Networking is even possible with the help of cell phones; with the help of it people can interact with one another and can create new bonds. There are different kind of people in the world including shy, anti social and various others. Cell phones have many features, which allow shy people to interact with someone on Internet without hesitation and increase their confidence. This way boosts their confidence up and then they can interact with the people outside and meet new people. Moreover no person should feel himself as he is out of the community, social networks with the help of cell phone clears it off. Everyone has the right to talk through any means and they can feel like they are a part of the community. This increases the amount of happiness amongst the people and depressing thoughts about suicides and various negative thoughts stay far away. Some people would suggest that increasing amount of technology might reduce the personal interactions but the case is quite diff erent as people can meet new people with the help of cell phones and it makes social relations stronger. Portability of cell phones even added to the cause, as two people can talk anywhere through the device no matter what the location is. Security could even be enhanced with the help of cell phones since it is not easy to cut down the communication, which is the case with landlines. Parents could communicate with their children under any situations whether there’s an emergency or the other, with the help of it they can get a swift response and escalation of the situation could be prevented. When the Burglars attack the houses can raise the alarm but since they couldn’t control the mobile networks cellphones could come handy during that time. Due to easy acquisition and no maintenance almost each and every house has a cell phone through which they can call ambulance under health crisis and lives can be saved. Adding to this, fire cases could be prevented with calling fire fighters thereby saving the lives and someone’s property. Once computers were used for doing research and other work but now they are used for playing games, Facebook, twitter, online shopping and various other things. Virtually one can do whatever he wants to or buy anything that he wants to with the help of computer. Cell Phones have now became computers on the tips of your hands. One can use many applications through their cell phones, which are very useful for each and every individual. Nowadays one can watch live cricket matches on their cell phones so people don’t tend to watch sitting in a group which really hampers the social relations. Instead of meeting one another nowadays people video chat amongst them through various applications termed Skype, Face Time and various other applications. Applications like Whatsapp, Snapchat, Viber and many more applications has been very helpful to the people who use these through their cell phones and it makes the social relations between people more strong. Negative effects of Cell phone usage: Here are some of the tweets: @Mackin__Hangin: But im out tho somebody snitched at work so now we cant have cell phones on the sales floor smh. @AnotherHollyDay: The awesome power if cell phones: when you need toilet paper so you text someone to bring you a roll. #whycellphoneswereinvented @DangerrrNick: Cell phones let me be in peoples pockets at all times. @sophianguyen_: Yesyes cell phones in class :) All the above tweets suggests that nowadays people rely too much and too heavily on their cell phones. As we see the first and the last tweet are the ones, which are really sad. First off the employees should not be on their cell phones while they are working, as it’s a sign of disrespect towards the customers. It is the case for the last tweet; Students should not be using their cell phones anyways or getting happy about it. Secondly, there is less verbal communication between friends. E.g.: The person cannot yell at his friend who is near him rather he’ll text him for the toilet paper, #whycellphoneswereinvented was not the reason why cell phones were invented but it was for useful reasons. Even the third tweet is pretty much sad, for the beginning there shouldn’t be a thought process and thereafter cell phones shouldn’t be in one’s pocket all the time. Desperation at its heights: How do these things work srsly. #smart #gloves #phone #finger #touch #fashion #knit #hand #simple friction I know but what from?! The above photograph depicts those hand gloves that were specially designed to use cell phones during cold. These gloves were specifically designed to use the touchscreen through the tips with the help of some magical frictional technology. It more apparent that people are dependent on their phones to that point where they cannot choose between having frozen fingers or texting their friends about how cold it is today. It is quite evident that society feels to be connected at all the times and they can go to a far extent for it as well. Desperation is at its finest point. The above photograph proves that how cell phone gives us new ideas to create that kind of technology through which we are always connected. The above-mentioned source helps to specify my topic as it shows the eagerness of the people to use cell phones by any means of technology even when it’s cold. This source is interesting because it proves that people do not even know about the technology they use it because it works. This research is obviously related to those people who live in cold regions. Forbes: The Forbes article gives us very shocking data that says worldwide 3 billion people have mobile service. Just in the U.S around 84% of people have a mobile service. In 2012 around 51% of people said it would be very difficult to give up their cell phones. But in 2002 only 38% of people said it would be difficult. This source takes me to a direction that says maybe cell phones are much of a good thing. However, some businessmen such as Mehtani says, His Phone has not made him happier but has improved his business. This source is connected to those people with mobile phones who spend much of their time, even businessmen that smart phones have really helped too. Psychology Today: This Psychology today article is a study at Baylor and Seton Hall Universities, researchers studied cell phone and text messaging among college aged women and men. College students are the maximum users and most addicted. On an average they send and receive about 109 text messages per day. Ironically there are heavy numbers of chances for social isolation when most of your social life is connected through a cell phone. This information from Psychology today is very sad. However, with this source it helps to take me into a direction where I can really focus on the negatives with cell phone use. Other Bad Sides: Cell phones are also used for kidnapping and blackmailing, capturing blue films or explicit content. There are times when children most importantly youngsters ignore food, parents, relations while texting or sending a message which drastically affects their personal life. On the other hand there are many health issues, which affects the children and they become the direct target. Cell Phones popularity, demand and less security has made them best target for the attackers. Cell phones and Tablets gives users access to e-mail’s, the Internet, GPS Navigation and many more applications but cell phone security has not been up to the mark as it was in computers. High security measures such as Firewall, antivirus and encryption are not present in cell phones and OS of mobile are not as frequently updated as that of computers. Socially as well hackers hack the account thereby sending unwanted messages through our account and then reputation getting spoilt. Most people nowadays cannot function without having their cell phone with them. If a person leaves or forgets his cell phone at home they usually feel â€Å"naked† without it. A cell phone does not only take over learning environments and social events but they are also accused of brain cancer. Cell Phones have gone from just being a means to talk, incase of emergencies or questions to causing fatal car accidents due to people sending a text message with the content ‘LOL’. In todays society with texting and cell phone games, people rarely every spend quality family time anymore, and many accidents and problems are caused because of Cell Phones. If one is more engaged in his cell phone most of the time then sooner or later he will become less socially active and start losing on his relations. Recent advancements in communication technology have enabled billions of people to connect over great distances using mobile phones, yet little is known about how the frequent presence of these devices in social settings influences face-to-face interactions. Studies show that homework is interrupted and children become distracted when they receive notifications of a new chat messages, texts, or emails. Studies have shown that it makes it tough for students who rely so deeply on knowledge to truly converse to adults in person because they don’t quite develop all of the vital skills to grasp or even onset a face-to-face conversation. Though, these skills are a critical instrument in the workforce. If you desire a elevated paying, stable job, or perhaps even to be confessed to a university, you have to have good face-to-face contact skills. If you lack these specific skills you most probable won’t even make it across the interview. Research from www.accuconference.com states that in 2012: †¢53% of adults owns a smartphone. †¢42% of people has utilized their phone for entertainment after they are bored. †¢51% of users utilized their cell phone at least after to receive information. †¢27% said they had concern acting something because they did not have their phone. †¢29% turns off their phones to seize a break from their digital existence at night. Conclusion: We have come to a society that is completely reliant on our knowledge to converse alongside others. It’s nearly impossible for us to uphold our communal existence lacking employing a little sort of modern-day knowledge to communicate. This article is not to say that mobile phones ought to be barred due to their countless negative aspects. It depends on us whether we use this knowledge for our progress and prosperity or for our destruction. No mistrust, mobile phone is the best change of this period but people ought to use it in a positive sense.

America :: essays research papers

America as we know it includes a vast network of representative governments. During the colonial period of early America, Virginia was the first to introduce a representative assembly. This first glimpse of democracy influenced the shape of America today. It eventually caused the colonies to drift away from monarchial England, and to establish a democratic government. Ironically, from this government, slavery and racism sprouted. In an attempt to make Virginia a more pleasant place to live, the governor was instructed to create an assembly with the power to make laws. The assembly included two members from each plantation to serve as burgesses, or representatives. Convening in 1619 it became the first colonial, representative body (p.13). This was a significant step in the formation of America. A group of men representing the residents of a particular land would make laws that were meant for them. This was democracy at its earliest stage in America. Everywhere one goes today in America, there is democracy. Whether a church council, school club or the state general assembly, a representative group is always present. Democracy shapes America. One could view the first democratic group responsible for today's freedom. This was the assembly formed by George Yeardly (p.13). Perhaps, if the Virginia Company had not instructed the governor to establish an assembly, the idea of democracy might not have instilled into the minds of the colonists. Surely, without this first appearance, it is questionable that an idea suppressed for centuries under the English monarchy would surface anywhere else. Moreover, it led the way for other settlements to adopt a similar code. Another way the representative body shaped America was slavery. Most representatives approved slavery and practiced it. The early burgesses of the Virginian assembly received land as their pay wages (p.14). They needed people to work their newly acquired lands. Therefore, indentured servants were common on their plantations. The whole idea of indentured servants and their later inadequacy eventually led to the flood of black slaves to America. Because these representatives owned servants and slaves themselves, slavery was easily passed into law.

Loneliness and Acceptance Essay -- First Person Narrative Examples

   I feel uncomfortable in my own world. Being alone unnerves me. I always have felt the need to share my world, my mind and my feelings with somebody. My feelings about myself seem less important than what others think of me. I'm scared of being lonely. And so are we all. We all seem to be on a continuous search for someone who will really love and understand us. Someone to provide us with a purpose for life. And yet I think we are all essentially alone. We are alone in our thoughts an emotions. The first time I really felt alone was when I was leaving Kentucky. We were at the airport saying our last good-byes. I was leaving everything and everyone that I loved, understood, cared for, to come and study in the Bay area. I was leaving familiar territory and moving into an unknown, unfamiliar world. I was saying good-bye to people who I had either grown up with or those who had seen me grow up. All my memories and emotions were attached to them. They were people who I thought really knew me and understood me. Yet every one of them had their own impression of how I should feel. Excitement, joy, fear, and sadness being the most popular. However nobody really knew what I was feeling. I felt all these emotions blended into an unique emotion of my own. One that I could not share with even my best friend. When I expressed my fears and anxiety about leaving Kentucky, no one seemed to really listen to what I was saying. They kept saying it would be alright. I was mature and almost an adult and the Western world with its great material temptations wouldn't corrupt me. But in my mind I felt isolated. I wanted them to sit and feel my anguish with me. But they wanted to pacify me, console me as though I were a baby. At that time I fel... ...e or friendship. We are taught that we don't have an identity if we are alone. Which is why we treat loneliness as a disease, one to be avoided at any cost. Loneliness is viewed as an inadequacy of our personalities. Though all of us are taught to be independent, our independence is superficial. We can cook, clean, and do our laundry but we can't seem to take care of our emotions independently. We are taught that we need to share all our emotions. And I believe that however hard we search we can never get the kind of understanding that we are looking for. We are taught to be uncomfortable in our own world. Society conditions us to believe that we are inadequately equipped to be alone and content. And that alone always means lonely.    Works Cited Macdonald, Elizabeth. "Odalisque" Encounters (Edt. Pat C. Hoy, Robert DiYanni) The Mc.Graw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Sociology as a Science

More†¦ The case for sociology as a science * 1. The Case for Sociology as a Science 1. Introduction In this paper, I try to put forward several points in favor of sociology as a science. In the course of argument, I will also discuss the problems of † value free† sociology and scope of sociology. 2. What is science? To answer the question if sociology is a science or not, first we need to know what is science, otherwise the question does not make much sense. Actually current philosophical views on the nature of science are diverse, and largely liberalized from previous views.First, they no longer accept strong criteria of falsification as a scientific method. There are several ways to formulate falsification, but her e I mean something like this: scientific theories should make observable predictions and we should discard a theory if we find only one discrepancy between a prediction of the theory and an observation. Because even physics cannot meet such a strong crit eria, now philosophers like Lakatos (1970) admit tolerance to such failure to some extent. Another new movement in philosophy is the attack on the universal laws.Cartwright (1983) argued that seemingly universal physical laws are not really universal, from logical point of view. This and other reasons (note1), Cartwright (1983) and Hacking (1983) presented a new view of science in which piecemeal â€Å"models†, instead of universal laws and theories, play the central role of scientific investigation . Here, â€Å"models† means oversimplified mental pictures of structure. For example, planetary model of atoms is long known as an oversimplification, but still it is widely used by chemists as a convenient way for thinking about chemical reactions. Feature Article –  Sociology TestI do not have enough space to give a definition of science, but these considerations will be enough to help our judgment on the status of sociology. 3. Is sociology a science? With the analysis of science in the previous section in mind, let us turn to sociology. Early sociologists tried to establish sociology as a science, and their arguments are mainly on the methodology of sociology. Comte claimed that sociology uses four different kinds of methodologies, namely observation, experiment, comparison and historical research as a special case of comparison (CST pp. 9-90, SCS pp. 42-54). These are the methodology used in several other scientific fields, especially in biology. So if his sociology had really followed these methods, it would have been a strong case for sociology as a science. But actually he never did empirical research (CST p. 110), so we cannot take his argument at the face value. But his argument influenced on other sociologist s, especially Durkheim. For Durkheim, sociology is a study o f social facts (CST p. 185). A social fact is † a thing that is external to, and coercive of, the actor† (ibid. emphasis original). Because they are external, social facts cannot be investigated by introspection (ibid. ). We should use empirical research. A typical use of this methodology is in his analysis of suicide (CST p. 195). Durkheim used statistics on suicide rate to establish his argument that suicide is a social phenomenon. He refused alternative hypotheses because their predictions did not agree with the actual statistical data. This is an admirable attempt of empirical research of society, but there are several problems.Durkheim applied too strict criteria of falsification to rival accounts. Adoption of these strict criteria is suicidal for sociology, because it is hard for a sociological theory to make a precise prediction, let alone to make a precise and correct prediction (and without this, the f alsification criteria do not work). Another related problem is in his reject ion of introspection as a sociological method. This restricts the scope of sociology too narrowly, and in fact even Durkheim's own study becomes impossible.For example, Durkheim's definition of suicide is â€Å"any case of death ‘resulting directly of indirectly from a positive or negative act of an individual against himself, which he knows must produce this result'† (ED p. 32). But, without using introspection, how can we decide if ‘he knows' the result or not, from external evidence only? I think that Weber's methodology provides an answer to these problems. His key word in this point is â€Å"Verstehen,† a German word for â€Å"understanding† or â€Å"interpretation† (CST pp. 222 -224, FMW pp. 55-56).According to him, we can â€Å"understand† other people's motivation through introspection of our own intentions, and this kind of knowledge is necessary for s ociology. This is exactly what Durkheim denied as a method of sociology, but as we saw above even Durkheim himself used this â€Å"understanding† in his actual work. But, o f course, the problem is if this is permissible as a scientific method. Strong falsification of a theory is almost impossible by such â€Å"interpreted† facts, because if an interpreted fact runs counter to the theory we can just change the interpretation.But, as we saw in the last section, such strong falsification is given up by philosophers of science as too strict a criteria. Moreover, the arbitrariness of interpretation is not as great as one might worry. For example, Comte's three stage theory (the detail of the theory does not matter here) has no follower today because there is no way we can reasonably interpret the evolution of society as obeying such a law. In this case we can say that Comte's theory was falsified.As far as we have this minimal possibility of falsification, we can admit â⠂¬Å"Verstehen† as a scientific method of sociology, thus † interpretive† sociology as a science. Before we proceed to next section, I would like to make a brief remark on the use of models in sociology. One of the reason people may argue against sociology as a science is the lack of the sociological theory. We have Marx's theory, Durkheim's theory, Weber's theory and so on, but none of them are shared by all sociologists.This seems to make a strong contrast with other fields of science where scientists agree on the basic theories. But, as we saw in the last section, some philosophers think that even in other scientific field what scientists are working on are piecemeal models, not a universal theory. And as f or such models, we can find abundant models shared by many sociologists. Actually, this is what Weber called â€Å"ideal types† (CST pp225-228). Ideal types are constructed through exaggerating some features of real cases. By comparing with ideal types we can find characteristics of each real case.These ideal types are useful conceptual tools for sociology just in the same sense as the planetary model of atoms is a useful conceptual tool for chemists. So, in this point, the difference between sociology and other scientific fields is not so great as it seems to be. 4. On â€Å"value free† sociology. To talk about â€Å"value free† sociology, I introduce a distinction made by philosophers recently (e. g. Laudan 1984). This is the distinction between â€Å"epistemic values† and non-epistemic values. Epistemic values are related to a special type of question â€Å"what should we accept as knowledge (or a fact)? Logical consistency, empirical adequacy, simplicity etc. are the criteria to answer such a question, and they ar e called epistemic values. On the other hand, other values are supposed to be used to answer the broader question â€Å"what should we do? † These are non-epistemic values. With this dist inction, we will find that the claims of † value free† sociology made by ea rly sociologists were actually the claims for independence of epistemic values from other values in sociology (even though they are not conscious about this distinction). First, let us see the case of Spencer.Spencer distinguished several kind s of emotional biases, and claimed that we should exclude these biases from sociological research (CST pp. 124-125). None of these biases are epistemic value as characterized above. Moreover, the Spencer's claim that we should exclude these biases is a value judgment, but this is an epistemic value judgment, and as far as this claim itself is not affected emotional biases, to apply such a value to sociology should be O. K. So Spencer's argument agrees with my definition of â€Å"value free† sociology. The same argument applies to Weber.Weber says that teachers should not exploit the circumstances in a lecture room to imprint upon the students his per sonal political views (FMW pp. 146-147), because the task of teacher is to teach his students to recognize† facts that are inconvenient for their party opinions† (FMW p. 147). Again this is a value judgment, but epistemic one. Apparently sociology (or any other science) cannot be free from all values (because the ideal of â€Å"value free† sociology itself is a value), but at least it can be free from non-epistemic kinds of values, when we decide what is a fact and what is not.I guess even Marx can agree this notion of â€Å"value free† sociology to some extent. Of course in Marx's theory the value judgment and the theory are inseparably related, but his actual arguments show that he distinguished these two things. For example, Marx criticizes Ricardo in â€Å"Theory of Surplus Value,† but the primary reason he criticizes Ricardo is not that Ricardo is capitalist, but that Ricardo's conceptual scheme is insufficient because it cannot deal with certai n cases (KM pp. 398-409). Thus the criteria for this judgment is pistemic values, not other kinds of value. I think that this way of argument gives Marx's theory its persuasiveness. Of course I admit non-epistemic values and sociology have many interrelationships. For example, the choice of research topic is influenced the sociologist's personal values, and sometimes a result of sociological research has immediate normative implications (e. g. Marx's analysis on alienated labor; KM pp. 77-87). But still, I think, at the point of accepting something as a fact, we should be free from non-epistemic values. 5. On the scope of sociologyComte thought that sociology is the study of social statics (social structure) and social dynamics (social change) (CST p. 94). Durkheim thought that sociology should deal with social facts. Simmel claimed that â€Å"everything which was not science of external nature must be science of society† (SCS p. 29). Does any of them have the right answer? I don't think that there is anything right or wrong on this topic, but my own preference is Simmel's answer quoted here. I think that Comte's and Durkheim's answers tried to restrict the subject fie ld of sociology to establish sociology as a independent scientific field.But now no one would doubt sociology is an independent field (even though someone might object that it is not a â€Å"scientific† field). In this situation, such a conscious self restriction of subject matter is nothing but an obstacle to interdisciplinary cooperations with psychology and other neighbor fields. This is why I like Simmel's answer. 6. Conclusion According to the liberalized philosophical view on science, there is nothing wrong with admitting Weber's â€Å"Verstehen† and â€Å"ideal types† as scientific method, thus admitting sociology using these methods as a science.Recent distinction between epistemic and non-epistemic values makes the claim of â€Å"value free† sociology intelligible, and I think it is a reasonable position if taken in the sense I defined. I also briefly talked about the scope of sociology, and argued that we should not be restrictive on the subject matter of sociology. For example, even in physics, the scientists in closely related fields sometimes accept mutually inconsistent theories in each field and have no problem. This shows that

Free Primary Education in Kenya Essay

Acknowledgement I acknowledge my God for provision of good health, sound mind and in tender caring. I also express the same to my lecturer Mr. Malel for his diligent and industrious work he did to me in the process of writing up the project. I also acknowledge the contributions of my colleagues and my family for the patience and encouragement that they have given me since I begun the project. I also acknowledge the free access to the Kenya National Library Service in Kericho. Dedication I dedicate this report to my Almighty Father for His countless Mercies and Eternal Providence. I also dedicate it to my family, my parents and my children. Abstract The study investigated the statistical relationship between the introduction of FPE and the enrolment of kids in ECD centers. The paper begins by assessing the changes in enrolment prior and after the introduction of FPE in 2002. It then delves into the question of why this happens. The covered Mogogosiek Zone although the findings is relevant for the whole country. The researcher sampled six schools as the sample to represent twenty schools in the zone. The random sample technique was used since all schools are homogeneous. The researcher used questionnaires and observation to collect data in the field. The project is useful for the stakeholders in the ECD sector ranging from school heads to government administrators involved with ECD work. Table of Contents DECLARATION BY CANDIDATEii DECLARATION BY THE SUPERVISORii Acknowledgementiii Dedicationiv Abstractv Abbreviations and Acronymsviii CHAPTER ONE1 Introduction1 1. 1Background of the Problem1 1. 2 Statement of the Problem3 1. 3Objectives of the Study4 1. 4 Purpose of the Study5 1. 5 Justification of the Project6 1. 6 Significance of the Study7 1. 7 Limitations8 1. 8 Delimitations9 CHAPTER TWO10 Literature Review10 2. 1 The effects of the introduction of FPE on enrollment10 2. 2 Factors that have led to low enrolment as a result of introduction of FPE in Kenya13 2. 3 Impact of FPE on enrolment in ECDs16 CHAPTER THREE18 Methodology18 3. 1 Research Design18 3. 2 Location of the Study19 3. 3 Target Population20 3. 4 Sample Population21 3. 5 Sampling Method22 3. 6 Research Instruments23 CHAPTER FOUR24 Data Representation24 4. 1 The Extent to Which ECD Enrolment Declined as a Result Of Introduction of Fpe in the ten Sampled Institutions24. 4. 2 Reasons for the Decline Of ECD Enrolment as a Result Of Introduction Of FPE26 4. 3 Impact of FPE on ECD Enrolment per Economic Class27 CHAPTER FIVE28 Conclusions28 5. 1 The Relationship between the Introduction of FPE and Enrolment in ECDS Attached to Public Primary schools28 5. 2 The Effects of Introduction of FPE on Enrolment in ECDS in Private Primary Schools28 5. 3 Causes for the Low Enrolment of Pupils in Public Primary School ECDS as A Result of Introduction Of FPE. 28 5. 4 Effects of Introduction of FPES on ECD per Economic Class29 APPENDIX A30 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ECD TEACHERS30. APPENDIX B35 BIBLIOGRAPHY35 APPENDIX C36 Work Schedule36 APPENDIX D37 Budget37 APPENDIX D38 Introduction letter38 Abbreviations and Acronyms ECD = Early Childhood Development ECDE = Early Childhood Development and Education. MDG = Millennium Development Goals. UN = United Nations FPE = Free Primary Education. GER=Gross Enrolment Rate is calculated by dividing the number of children of whatever age enrolled in preschool by the estimated number of 3-5 year olds. UNESCO= United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization. OECD=Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. MOEST=Ministry of Education, Science and Technology CHAPTER ONE Introduction This chapter introduces the research topic. It begins with an introduction followed by a statement of the problem and finally the purpose of the study. 1. 1Background of the Problem As part of his campaign manifesto, President Kibaki introduced the Free Primary Education program in Primary schools. The program was meant to lead to high enrollment of pupils in both primary school and ECD centers in Kenya. The natural corollary was that the ECD enrollment would rise as a result of the introduction of FPE. However, statistics show the contrary. The rate of enrolment in ECD centers has reduced following the introduction of FPE. This shows a negative correlation between enrolment and FPE. This project sought to establish the fact that indeed enrollment in FPE has declined since the introduction of FPE in schools. Paper also sought to give reasons why the rate of enrolment in ECD bears a negative correlation with the FPE funding. This has been a surprise finding given that the aim of the government is to develop education in Kenya holistically. The project also assessed the likely statistical relationship between enrolment in primary and ECD It showed that . the higher the enrolment rate in primary school the lower the enrolment in ECD. This project sought to give reasons for that relationship and provide for suggestions on how the problem can be solved. 1. 2 Statement of the Problem The problem was to study the effects that FPE has had on enrollment in ECDCs. The project also studied the causes of the negative relationship between FPE funding and low enrollment in ECDCs. The problem is that due to the introduction of FPE, pupils have been joining class one without going through the ECD classes. This is a worrying trend as it suggests a low level of preparedness of the pupils in lower primary school. It also points to the need to consider ECD in public funding 1. 3Objectives of the Study The project studied the following objectives: [a] To establish the effect of the introduction of FPE on enrolment in ECDS attached to public primary schools. [b]To establish the effects of the introduction of FPE on enrolment of pupils in ECDS attached to private primary schools. [c] To determine the extent to which enrollment in ECDCs have declined in Mogogosiek zone as a result of the introduction of FPE. [d] To determine the effects of introduction of FPEs on enrolment in ECDS per economic class. 1. 4 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of the introduction of Free Primary Education on enrolment in ECDs in primary schools in Kenya. 1. 5 Justification of the Project This project is justified on the following grounds. First, little attempt has been made to determine the relationship between the introduction of FPE nationally and enrollment of pupils in ECDs locally. There is also need to determine the causes of the decline in enrolment in ECDs as a result of introduction of FPE. The decline has mostly affected the poor who consist of the most vulnerable group. That the introduction of FPE has negatively affected the poor in terms of taking their children to the ECD has great implications to fighting poverty in the country. It shows that the children of the poor have poor foundation and will most likely perform poorly later in life thereby widening the poverty gap wider still 1. 6 Significance of the Study This study is important because of a number of reasons. First, the government must know the impacts of its funding primary schools or other institutions. The FPE is an integrated development program and it should lead to a holistic development of the education sector in general and not a lopsided development of the country. Secondly, the government will get information on the level of foundational education in rural areas and design effective policies that will aid the state in ensuring high standards of education in ECD and ensure effective transition from ECD to primary school. Thirdly, there is an ongoing pressure on the government to fund the ECD sector in Kenya. This paper is meant to ensure that this goal is attained. Lastly, educational practitioners particularly ECD teachers and administrators will be reminded of the need to ensure a high level of enrolment in ECDs and effective transition to primary schools 1. 7 Limitations During the study, the researchers were limited by the following factors. First and foremost, rural ECD managers were not willing to talk about the low enrolment in ECD centers. They feared that releasing the information would lead to negative publicity. Secondly, most residents were not very open to give information on where their children were learning to outsiders. Thirdly, the county is very large and expansive. It was not very easy for the researchers to travel from one location to another due to poor and rugged terrain. Fourth, most residents have just recovered from the post electoral violence that affected most of the Republic. They are very suspicious of new comers and more so even residents asking questions. They easily take such gestures as police investigations. Fifth, though not least, the researcher was affected by lack of enough funds to carry out an in depth analysis covering the entire zone. Even if funds were availed, there was still the need for more time to carry out the work. The researchers were affected by lack of sufficient time since they are full time teachers who need time to run their institutions apart from conducting research work. The project was also be affected by low literacy rate since most parents are not literate enough to interpret and respond to questionnaires. 1. 8 Delimitations The delimiting factor is that the researchers come from the study location and are highly familiar with the area. Secondly, the researchers being ECD and Primary teachers, have long and extensive experience and contact with ECD and primary school children. They are also conversant the running of ECD centers in the country. Thirdly, the researchers used written questionnaires distributed to schools. This minimized the time needed to move from one institution to another and effectively reduce the time needed to talk with an interviewee. CHAPTER TWO Literature Review 2. 1 The effects of the introduction of FPE on enrollment Many studies have been conducted to ascertain the actual effect of FPE on ECD enrolment. Most of the studies have been conducted by International development Agencies such as USAID and DANIDA. The most comprehensive overview, however, are the studies conducted by UNESCO and approved by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. A UNESCO Policy Review Report, UNESCO/OECD Early Childhood Policy Review Project, 2005, hereafter to be referred simply to as the UNESCO report 2005, reports that, ‘A 1969 survey counted about 200,000 children enrolled in 4800 ECD centers with about 5,000 teachers. The number of ECD Centers and teachers have been growing steadily and, after a stalled increase of only 15% between 1993 and 2000, the enrolment ratio leaped by 50% over the next three years. The current (2001/02) GER in preschool is officially 35%, although the Government’s own statistics appear to show a GER of 48% in 1998, falling to 41% in 2002. † Such a report shows a decline in GER in ECD. The year in which the FPE was introduced is 2002. Therefore, changes occurring between 2001 and 2002 truly indicate effects of FPE on enrolment. A UNESCO Policy brief on Early Childhood entitled the Impacts of Free Primary Education on Early Childhood Development in Kenya, Jan. to Feb. 2006, by Yoshie Kaga, claims that the overall effect of FPE has been the reduction of enrollment in ECD. Here is an excerpt from the report, â€Å"Studies have been conducted to assess the effects of FPE on ECD centers. Some report on negative effects, while others note no major draw backs. While the overall impact of the policy is yet to be determined, the UNESCO/OECD Early Childhood Policy Review Mission, which took place in September 2004, observed that the policy did have a negative impact of FPE on ECD in Kenya and outline two major options that may mitigate possible negative impact. † EFA Global Monitoring report, 2005, UNESCO Publishing reports that the gross enrollment rate for the age group 3 to 5 was 44. 4% in 2001. However, the theory that enrollment rates declined as a result of the introduction of FPEs is not automatically to be accepted. Some reports indicate that the GER increased as a result of the introduction of FPE. The UNESCO/OECD Report, 2005, reports in item number 3. 4. 1, â€Å"The Background Report of Kenya shows that, while enrollment increased substantially from 1,076,606 to 1,281,846 between 1998 and 2002. A closer look at the figures, however, suggests two rather disturbing trends. First, GER’s in preschool have clearly declined since 1998 from 48% to 41%, and the major overall decline took place between 1998 and 1999 before the FPE option arose. In fact, a small increase occurred from 2002 to 2003, after FPE was introduced in January 2003. Second, while he 1998 GER was about the same for boys and girls, a gap of about 4% in favor of boys opened up in 2001 and grew to 6% in 2002. â€Å" The figures in the above report are not the same as other documents. According to the Quantitative Study of the Early Childhood Development Project : Final report to MOEST statistics, the 2002 figure is 1,416,048 and not 1,281,846. These dissenting views and conflicting figures show that the inverse relationship between FPE and ECD needs to be verified by qualified actuarial review. The extent of the relationship may need other factors to explain other than the factors stated above. 2. 2 Factors that have led to low enrolment as a result of introduction of FPE in Kenya Many workers have tried to give reasons for the decline in ECD enrolment as a result of the introduction of FPE. However, these are not in the form of complex scientific theories. The UNESCO Policy Brief on Early Childhood is one such document. It explains the phenomenon in the following terms, â€Å"The main reason for this phenomenon is that since the implementation of FPE, poor parents are choosing to withdraw their children from ECD centers and/or keep them at home until they reach the age of primary school entry. They refuse to pay the fees for ECD on the grounds that ECD, lie primary education, should be free. † However, this assertion needs to be corroborated by more extensive scientific studies on the causes of the inverse relationship. Economic theories may help to describe the situation better. According to Ricardian analysis, low cost items such as table salt are already sold cheaply and are therefore associated with poor sections of the population. If the price of salt, for example is reduced further, it becomes too cheap and the buyers may shift for more costly brand of salt. This theory seems to hold true for the ECDs in rural areas of Kenya. They are considered very cheap. Due to government subsidy, the parents may actually feel that the quality of primary education in public primary schools will decline. They see children who have been idle at home, such as street children being brought to school. This makes them to hate public school education and instead opt for the costly private schools. As a basic strategy, they decide to enrol their children in private ECDs with the reasoning that by the time the child enters primary school, he or she will have laid a strong foundation in ECDE. The UNESCO/OECD Report in section 3. 3. 5. Reports that, â€Å"Meanwhile, an assessment study of FPE on ECD carried out jointly by the MOEST and UNESCO in February 2004 found that ECD programmes had almost collapsed because children’s enrolment had decreased after the introduction of FPE. The study found that parents opted to send their children straight to standard one, which became free, without having them go through ECD, which was still fees paying. Moreover, Standard one teacher reported that children who skipped ECD had difficulty coping with lessons in primary school and poorly performed. † Section 3. 3. 4 reports that, â€Å"The Review Team found widespread anecdotal evidence of drops in enrolment at ECD centres, especially in poor provinces such as North Eastern†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ many parents have by passed ECD altogether ; many others send their children only to pre-unit class of ECD to prepare them for primary school. In some areas, parents are keeping their children at home until they reach the age of 6 entitling them to free education. † Yet other factors have been suggested by the UNESCO Policy Briefs on ECD. Calling it the unintended consequence on ECD, the report went on to report that, â€Å"ECD classrooms set up on the premises of public primary schools have been shut down in order to accommodate the surge of enrolment in primary schools sparked by FPE. In some cases, ECD children and teachers must put up with reduced space; in others, they have been moved to the worst classrooms in the premises. At the district level, inspection and supervision of ECD centres some of which is carried out by the district based Zonal Inspector of schools, have reportedly become less frequent. † The UNESCO/OECD report presents a critique of the situation thus: ‘Despite these observations, the impact of FPE on ECD is still subject to dispute. For example, it is unclear whether FPE has been the main cause of falling ECD enrolments, given the evidence that the decline may well have begun well before the introduction of the policy. Also, it is yet to be determined how many of the unprepared pupils newly flowing into standard one would have gone to ECD centres if FPE had not been in place. The influx could simply be explained by a rising enrolment of at risk children who would not have been able to afford primary education when it was fee paying, let alone ECD centres. 2. 3 Impact of FPE on enrolment in ECDs There is an indication that poverty may be a great factor determining patterns of enrolment in ECDs. The UNESCO/OECD Report 2005, reports in section 3. 3. 8. Suggest that there is no direct relationship between FPE and ECD. Otherwise, such relationship could exist between FPE and other factors that mitigate leading to low enrolment. The paper points at poverty as one of the factors that lead to low enrolment as a result of the introduction of FPE. Section 3. 4. 3 on inequalities in the same report shows that, â€Å"There are obvious geographical inequalities. In Nairobi, for instance, far more children are likely to be enrolled in ECD than in other provinces with similar poverty levels. Meanwhile, North Eastern Province has the highest poverty level and the lowest enrolment rates. There are also gender disparities. In Nairobi, girls are more likely to be enrolled whereas in North Eastern province, the reverse is observed. ‘The report claims that the poor are generally not able to access ECD services. â€Å"Even within Nairobi, middle and upper class children benefit most from preschool experiences. Overall, those lacking access to preschool services tend to be children from disadvantages communities such as semi arid and arid areas and urban slums. This observation is reinforced by the findings of the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey. (UNICEF/Government Survey, 2000) showing that 29. 5% of children whose mothers had secondary education were enrolled in some form of ECD compared to 10. 7% of those whose mothers had only completed primary school and 12. 4% of 2002 of those whose mothers had no schooling. There is also a clear association between GERs in 1998 and 2002 and the absolute poverty index (1997) at the district level, with eight of the ten correlations being negative and statistically significant though not very large. ’ The table below was meant to encapsulate the correlation between poverty index and Ger at district level. If these reports are anything to go by, the researcher expects to find the decline in ECD enrolment to affect mainly the public ECD centres as opposed to the private ECD units. | 1998| 1999| 2000| 2001| 2002| Boys| -0. 355| -0. 252| +0. 145| -0. 096| -0. 271| Girls| +0. 007| -0. 287| -0. 272| -0. 048| -0. 290| Correlations between poverty index (1997) and GERs at District Level Ref: Kenya Human development report (2001). UNDP/Background Report of Kenya for the UNESCO/OECD Early Childhood Policy Review Project (2005). MOEST , Govt of Kenya. Statistically significant p is less than 0. 05. The researcher will therefore study the impacts of socio economic status on enrolment in ECD centres. CHAPTER THREE Methodology 3. 1 Research Design The researcher adopted the diagnostic research design. According to Kothari, diagnostic research studies are necessary to establish causality and causal nexus of two or three phenomena. The diagnostic research design was be inevitable as the researcher was needed to establish causality among variables: school enrolment and enrolment. 3. 2 Location of the Study. The study was carried out in Konoin District, Mogogosiek Zone. It targeted three schoo 3. 3 Target Population The study targeted ECD children, ECD teachers and primary school Head Teachers in Early Childhood Development centres. 3. 4 Sample Population The study sampled ten schools from a total of twenty two in Mogogosiek Zone, Konoin District, Bomet County. 3. 5 Sampling Method The researcher used simple stratified sampling. The listed schools were classified as boarding and day schools. Two schools were picked from private and three schools will be picked from day public schools category. The proportion was used since there are only 1 out of 5 boarding schools in the zone 3. 6 Research Instruments The researcher used questionnaires and study schedules as the basic research instruments. The questionnaires will be designed and tested on a school that is not part of the samples. The test will enable the researchers to determine the efficacy of the questionnaire. The researcher then wrote to the heads of the sampled schools seeking permission to conduct research in their institutions. The researcher sampled three schools representing all types of primary schools in the study locale. CHAPTER FOUR Data Representation 4. 1 The Extent to Which ECD Enrolment Declined as a Result Of Introduction of Fpe in the ten Sampled Institutions The researcher studied the data from ten schools relating to the rate of enrolment just before and after the introduction of FPE. The results were as under: SCHOOL| ECD ENROLMENT IN 2000| ECD ENRLMENT IN 2001| ECD ENROLMENT IN 2002| ECD ENROLMENT IN 2003| 1| 51| 50| 53| 43| 2| 48| 47| 53| 44| 3| 67| 69| 71| 58| A| 41| 43| 44| 61| B| 47| 52| 51| 58| The graph below depicts these data. The results show that there was a general trend for the enrolment in ECD in public primary schools to decline in the year following the introduction of FPE in 2002. There was increase of the number of pupils enrolling in ECDs manned by private schools following the introduction of FPE. 4. 2 Reasons for the Decline Of ECD Enrolment as a Result Of Introduction Of FPE The researcher sought to establish the causes of declined enrolment in public ECDs following the introduction of FPE in 2002. The following responses were established. REASON GIVEN| % OF RESPONDENTS| | Fear of low quality due to high enrolment in class| 44%| | Fear of poor foundation in public ECDs| 23%| | Need to give children good ECD foundation before joining private ECDs| 76%| | Decline in the status of public ECDs| 39%| | Demand for free education in class one | 17%| | These data show that most parents preferred private school ECDs to public school ECDs due to the reasons above: fear that the free primary education would lead to high enrolment hence low quality of education; the fear that the public school ECDs were not preparing pupils adequately for primary  school education; need to children good ECD foundation and the decline of the status of public school ECD. This was aggravated by the introduction of street boys enrolling in public primary schools. 17% wished to get free education in class one hence skips the ECD class in order to achieve this. 4. 3 Impact of FPE on ECD Enrolment per Economic Class The researcher sought to establish the effects that the introduction of FPE has led to decreased enrolment in ECD by economic class. She studied the composition of ten pupils in each sampled school to determine their economic class. It is found that most of the high class parents of course send their children to schools A to D. However, the following statistics relate to the composition of the pupils in the ECDs attached to public primary schools. The parents were classified as either poor [earning less than 3000 per month] or average [earning between 3001 and 6000] per month. The statistics below show the effect that the introduction of FPE affected the composition of pupils enrolling in public school ECDs. SCHOOL| POOR| AVERAGE| LOWER MIDDLE| 1| 88%| 8%| 4%| 2| 78%| 9%| 13%| 3| 91%| 5%| 4%| CHAPTER FIVE. Conclusions 5. 1 The Relationship between the Introduction of FPE and Enrolment in ECDS Attached to Public Primary schools The study established that there is a negative relationship between the introduction of FPE and the enrolment in ECD centres in ECDs attached to public primary schools. The introduction of FPE led to reduced enrolment in primary schools in these schools. 5. 2 The Effects of Introduction of FPE on Enrolment in ECDS in Private Primary Schools The study established that the introduction of FPE in 2002 led to increased enrolment in ECDS in private primary school 5. 3 Causes for the Low Enrolment of Pupils in Public Primary School ECDS as A Result of Introduction Of FPE. The study established that the introduction of FPEs led to low enrolment in ECDS in public primary schools due to the following reasons: First, most parents feared that the admission of many pupils in primary schools will lead to low quality of education. They therefore sought to enrol their children in private institutions to escape from the low quality education to be experienced in public primary schools. Secondly, the parents associated the introduction of FPE in public primary schools to low prestige. The poor class could now take their children to school. This was not possible before. Those in the average class sought to take their children to better schools in order to maintain their status ahead of the poor class. Thirdly, the introduction of free education in primary school led to the poor class parents taking their children direct to class one in order to escape the fees paid in ECD and directly benefit from the FPE program 5. 4 Effects of Introduction of FPES on ECD per Economic Class. The introduction of FPE led to decline in the number of the children of the economically poor members of the community as compared to the middle class and the rich who continued to take their children to private school ECDs. APPENDIX A Questionnaire for ECD Teachers This questionnaire is part of a research project carried out by the researcher in partial fulfilment for award of the Diploma in ECD. The information obtained will be used for academic purposes only and will not be divulged to third parties. PART ONE General Information 1. Number of Years You have worked in the station:____________________ Current position held:_______________ 2. Kindly give the pupils enrolment in your class by filling the form below: YEAR| BOYS| GIRLS| TOTAL| STREAMS| 2002| | | | | 2003| | | | | 2004| | | | | 2005| | | | | 2006| | | | | 2007| | | | | 2008| | | | | 2009| | | | | 2010| | | | | 2011| | | | | 3. Who pays for your wages? Parents NGO County Council 4. Who collects the fees? Heat Teacher Pre-School Teacher 5. How is the fee collected if parents fail to pay? Sending pupils Teachers visiting parents 6. How are you paid your wages? Monthly Quarterly 7. Are parents willing to pay school fees? Yes No 8. Is the fees paid enough for your wages? Yes No 9. Are defaulters of fees common? Yes No 10. If yes, what reason do they give for defaulting? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 11. Are head teachers supportive in dealing with defaulters? Yes No 12. ————————————————- What is your suggestion to the government in relation to free primary education and the way it affects preschool parents? ————————————————- ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 13. Briefly give the age range of the pupils in your current class. SEX| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9| BOYS| | | | | | | | GIRLS| | | | | | | | TOTAL| | | | | | | | 14. Briefly give the range of pupils in 2003 class. SEX| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9| BOYS| | | | | | | | GIRLS| | | | | | | | TOTAL| | | | | | | | 15. In your opinion, has the entry age changed since introduction of FPE? Yes No 16. Do your pre school classes have a committee? Yes No 17. How often are parents meetings held? Once a term. Once a year. 18. Do you keep financial records of fees collected? Yes No 19. If yes, how many pupils failed to complete fees in the previous year ? _____________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Thank you very much for responding to questionnaire truthfully and for being mindful of our research. God bless you. APPENDIX B. Bibliography 1. Economics Simplified, 2009, Saleemi Publications, Kenya. 2. EFA Global Monitoring Report(2004). New York: UNDP. S 3. MOEST, Government of Kenya,2005, Background report of Kenya for the UNESCO/OECD Early Chidhood Policy Review Project, Government of Kenya. 4. Ngwere M. W. et al (2004). Quantitative Study of the Kenya Early Childhood Development Project, final report to the MOEST, June 2004. Nakuru: Sermon educational Consultants. 5. UNESCO/OECD Early Childhood Policy Review Project, Policy Review Report: Early Childhood Care and Education in Kenya, by UNESCO, Paris, February, 2005. 6. Yoshie Kaga, 2006,UNESCO Policy Brief on Early Childhood, Impacts of Free Primary Education o Early Childhood development in Kenya, Paris. APPENDIX C Work Schedule MONTH | YEAR| ACTIVITY TO BE DONE| December | 2010| Preparation for the research proposal and budgeting| January-March| 2011| Writing of the proposal| April| 2011| Approval for the proposal| May| 2011| Compiling and revising of the research proposal| June-July| 2011| Collection of the data| August| 2011| Analyzing of the data| September-December| 2011| Compiling and presenting the final project. | APPENDIX D Budget. ACTIVITY| PLACE/ITEM/USE| AMOUNT KSH| Travelling | For Literature review during data collection while typing and compiling the project. | 5001,5002,000| Stationery| Papers, pens, ruler, books, foolscaps, stapler, paper bunches | 2,000| Typing/photocopying | Research proposal and final project. | 3,500| Food| Lunch, tea break, snacks| 1,500| Miscellaneous Expenses| Emergencies| 2,500| TOTAL| | 13,500| APPENDIX D Introduction letter CHEBET JOYCE, KIRIMOSE PRIMARY SCHOOL, P. O BOX 174 , LITEIN. 25TH JUNE 2011. TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN Dear Sir/Madam, REF: PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN MOGOGOSIEK ZONE. I wish to seek for permission to conduct a research in your pre-school centre on THE EFFECTS OF INTRODUCTION OF FREE PRIMARY EDUCATION PROGRAM ON ENROLMENT IN ECD CENTERS in MOGOGOSIEK zone. I am a Diploma Student at Valley Teachers Training College The Kenya National Examination Council is requiring a research as part of examination from me. I am therefore required to collect data from your E. C. D. E teachers, parents, and head teachers of the selected school. I look forward for your positive respond. Thanks in advance Yours Faithfully Chebet Joyce.